Towards an Emerging Distinction between State and People: Return Migration Programs, Diaspora Management and Agentic Migrants
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59670/ml.v17i1.770Keywords:
Family-related migration, civic stratification, social reproduction, citizenship, Hong KongAbstract
While Jewish immigration to the State of Israel is a key component of Zionist ideology, emigration has been discouraged and vilified. Yet, Israeli Jewish citizens have been leaving throughout. This paper chronicles the approaches of the State of Israel towards its citizen diaspora, which shifted from rejection to the realisation of Israelis abroad as a fait accompli, and a resource for the state. At the same time, it depicts the self-organisation of Israeli citizens abroad, and their on-going ties to the State of Israel, even if they are highly critical of it. To elaborate on this dialectic, the paper zooms in on Israeli citizens in Germany. In consequence, I argue that the secularised notion of the ‘love for the Jewish people’ (ahavat yisrael) can be extended to ahava be’ad ha’medinat yisrael (love for the State of Israel) in the present to conceptualise the on-going relationship of Israeli citizens abroad to Israel, and its implementation by the state.Metrics
References
Amit, H. (2017). "The Revival of Diasporic Hebrew in Contemporary Berlin." In: Hosek, J. R. & Bauer, K. (eds.) Cultural Topographies of the New Berlin. An Anthology. Oxford: Berghahn: 253-273.
Amit, H. (2018). "Israel, Zionism and emigration anxiety: the case of Israeli Academia." Settler Colonial Studies, DOI: 10.1080/2201473X.2018.1487119
https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2018.1487119
Berlant, L. (2011). "A Properly Political Concept of Love: Three Approaches in Ten Pages." Cultural Anthropology, 26 (4): 683-691.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1360.2011.01120.x
Blaschke, W., Fings, K. and Lissner, C. (1997) Unter Vorbehalt: Rückkehr aus der Emigration nach 1945. Cologne: Emons Verlag.
Borneman, J. and Peck, J. M. (1995). Sojourners: The Return of German Jews and the Question of Identity. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln.
Boum, A. and Stein, S. A. (2019). The Holocaust and North Africa, Stanford, Stanford University Press.
Boyarin, D., and Boyarin, J. (1993). "Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Identity." Critical Inquiry, 19 (4): 693-725.
https://doi.org/10.1086/448694
Butler, J. (2013). Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Clifford, J. (1994). "Diasporas." Cultural Anthropology, 9 (3): 302-338.
https://doi.org/10.1525/can.1994.9.3.02a00040
Cohen, E. (2008). "'We are Staying in our Country - Here': Israeli Mediascapes in Melbourne." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34, (6): 1003-19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830802211307
Cohen, R. (1999). "From Ethnonational Enclave to Diasporic Community: The Mainstreaming of Israeli Jewish Migrants in Toronto." Diaspora 8 (2): 121-136.
https://doi.org/10.1353/dsp.1999.0018
Cohen, R., and G. Gold. (1997). "Constructing Ethnicity: Myth of Return and Modes of Exclusion among Israelis in Toronto." International Migration, 35 (3): 373-394.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2435.00018
Cohen, N. (2007). "From overt rejection to enthusiastic embracement: changing state discourses on Israeli emigration." GeoJournal, 68 (2): 267-278.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-007-9075-y
Cohen, N. (2008). State, Migrants and the Production of Extra-Territorial Spaces: Negotiating Israeli Citizenship in the Diaspora. Department of Geography, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Arizona.
Cohen, N. (2009). "Come Home, Be Professional: Ethno-nationalism and Economic Rationalism in Israel's Return Migration Strategy." Immigrants & Minorities, 27 (1): 1 - 28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02619280902895843
Cohen, N. (2011). "Rights Beyond Borders: Everyday Politics of Citizenship in the Israeli Diaspora." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 37 (7): 1137-1153.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2011.575330
Cohen, N. (2013). "From nation to profession: Israeli state strategy toward highly-skilled return migration, 1949-2012." Journal of Historical Geography, 42: 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2013.04.018
Cohen, N. (2015). "A Web of Repatriation: The Changing: Politics of Israel's Diaspora Strategy." Population Space Place, DOI: 10.1002/psp.1931
https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1931
Cohen, Y. (2011). "Israeli-born emigrants: Size, destinations and selectivity." International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 52 (1-2): 45-62.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715210379430
Cohen, H. and Kranz, D. (2017). ""Israeli Jews in the New Berlin. From Shoah Memories to Middle Eastern Encounters." In: Hosek, J. R. & Bauer, K. (eds.) Cultural Topographies of the New Berlin. An Anthology. Oxford: Berghahn: 322-346.
Decker, O & Brähler, E. (2018). Flucht ins Autoritäre. Göttingen: Psychosozial Verlag.
Elizur, D. (1973). "Attitudes and intentions of Israelis residing in the United States towards returning to Israel." International Migration, 11(1-2): 3-14.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.1973.tb00895.x
Esu, A. (2015). "Violence and Statebuilding in a Borders Conflict Context: A Study of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict." Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 10 (2): 261-277.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2015.1054658
Gamlen, A., Cummings, M. E. and Vaaler, P. M. (2017). "Explaining the rise of diaspora institutions." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409163.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409163
Gans, H. (1994) Symbolic Ethnicity and Symbolic Religiosity: towards a comparison of ethnic and religious acculturation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17 (4): 577-592.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1994.9993841
Gold, S. J. (2001). "Gender, Class, and Network: Social Structure and Migration Patterns among Transnational Israelis." Global Networks 1 (1): 57-78.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0374.00005
Gold, S. J. (2002). The Israeli Diaspora. University of Washington Press. Seattle, WA.
Gold, S. J. (2004). "From Nationality to Peoplehood: Adaptation and Identity Formation in the Israeli Diaspora." Diaspora, 13 (2): 331-358.
https://doi.org/10.1353/dsp.2008.0007
Gold, S. J. and Phillips, B. A. (1996). "Israelis in the United States." American Jewish Yearbook: 51-101.
Gold, S. J. and R. Hart. (2009). "Transnational Ties during a Time of Crisis: Israeli Emigration, 2000 to 2004." International Migration 51 (3): 194-216.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00574.x
Hagemann, S. & Nathanson, R. (2015). Deutschland und Israel heute. Verbindende Vergangenheit, trennende Gegenwart? Available at: https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/BSt/Publikationen/GrauePublikationen/Studie_LW_Deutschland_und_Israel_heute_2015.pdf (Accessed: July 20,.2018).
Hammack, P. L. (2010). Narrative and the Politics of Identity: The Cultural Psychology of Israeli and Palestinian Youth. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195394467.001.0001
Harris, B. D. (2015). "Beyond Guilt and Stigma: Changing Attitudes among Israeli Migrants in Canada." International Migration, 53 (6): 41-56.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00732.x
Hart, R. (2004). Altarity: choosing schools, choosing identities in London. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Education and Professional Studies. Unpublished PhD thesis, Kings College London
Kidron, C. (2004). "Surviving a Distant Past: A Case Study of the Cultural Construction of Trauma Descendant Identity." Ethos, 31 (4): 513-544.
https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2003.31.4.513
Korazim, J. (1985). "Raising Children in Ambivalent Immigrants Families: Israelis in New York." Children and Youth Services Review, 7: 353-362.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(85)80007-4
Kruse, A. and Schmitt, E. (2000). Wir haben uns als Deutsche gefühlt: Lebensrückblick und Lebenssituation jüdischer Emigranten und Lagerhäftlinge. Berlin: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-93687-6
Kranz, D. (2018). "Ein Plädoyer für den Alloismus. Historische Kontinuitäten, Zeitgeist und transkultureller Antisemitismus." In: E. Brähler and O. Decker (eds.), Leipziger Autoritätsstudie. Leipzig: Universität Leipzig, 177-192.
Kranz, D. (2019). "Big baggage on small shoulders? Children of Israeli/German Interparentage in Germany." In M. Gasperoni, C. Grand and V. Gourdon (eds.) Les mariages mixtes dans les sociétés européennes, XVIIIe-XXIe siècles Pour une histoire sociale de la mixité matrimoniale. Rome: Viella, 286-312.
Kranz, D., Rebhun, U. and Sünker, H. (2015). The Most Comprehensive Survey among Israelis in Germany Confirms the Image. Secular, Educated, and Left. Spitz. December 4, 2015. Available at: http://spitzmag.de/webonly/7238. [Hebrew] (accessed December 5, 2015)
Kupfer, S. and Turgeman, A. (2014). "The Secularization of the Idea of Ahavat Israel and Its Illumination of the Scholem-Arendt Correspondence on Eichmann in Jerusalem." Modern Judaism, 34(2):188-209
https://doi.org/10.1093/mj/kju002
Lev Ari, L. (2005). "Differences between Sephardic Jews and Ashkenazi Jews in Social and Cultural Assimilation among Israelis Staying Abroad." Pe'amim, 101-102: 221-249.
Lev Ari, L. (2013). "Multiple Ethnic Identities among Israeli Immigrants in Europe." International Journal of Jewish Education Research, 6: 29-67.
Lev Ari, L. and Cohen, N. (2018.). "Acculturation Strategies and Ethnic Identity Among Second-Generation Israeli Migrants in the United States." Contemporary Jewry, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12397-018-9258-5
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12397-018-9258-5
Lewkowicz, B. (2006). Jewish Community of Salonika: History, Memory, Identity. London: Vallentine Mitchell.
Linn, R., and N. Barkan-Ascher. (1994). "Imaginary Suitcases in the Lives of Israeli Expatriates in Canada: A Psychological Look at A Unique Historical Phenomenon." Canadian Jewish Studies, 2: 21-40.
https://doi.org/10.25071/1916-0925.19785
Magat, I. N. (1999). "Israeli and Japanese Immigrants to Canada: Home, Belonging, and the Territorialization of Identity." Ethos 27 (2): 119-144.
https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.1999.27.2.119
Meiering, K. (1998). Die christlich-jüdische Mischehe in Deutschland, 1840-1933. Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz Verlag.
Meyers, O. (2001). "A Home Away from Home? Israel Shelanu and the Self-Perceptions of Israeli Migrants." Israel Studies, 6 (3): 71-90.
https://doi.org/10.2979/ISR.2001.6.3.71
Miller McPherson, J., Smith-Lovin, L. and Cook, J. M. (2001). "Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks." Annual Review of Sociology, 27: 415-44.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415
Ministry of Aliyah and Integration. (2019). For Personal Contact- List of Israel House Coordinators. https://www.gov.il/en/Departments/General/returning_residents_israeli_home_coordinators
Mittelberg, D. and Waters, M. C. (1992). "The Process of Ethnogenesis among Haitian and Israeli Immigrants in the United States." Ethnic and Racial Studies, 15 (3): 412-435.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1992.9993755
Morrison, C.-A., Johnston, L. and Longhurst, R. (2012). "Critical geographies of love as spatial, relational and political." Progress in Human Geography, 37(4) 505-521.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132512462513
Porat, R. (2013). Ausraelis: The diasporic identity of Israelis in Australia. Australian Centre for Jewish Civilisation, Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Philosophical, Historical & International Studies Monash University.
Porat, R. (2017). "The Ausraelis: Israelis in Australia as a test case of distinctiveness vis-à-vis the Jewish diaspora." Israel Affairs, DOI: 10.1080/13537121.2017.1398463.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2017.1398463
Rebhun, U. and Lev Ari, L. (2010). American Israelis. Amsterdam: Brill.
https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004183889.i-176
Roginsky, D. and Cohen, R. (2018). "Trading Jerusalem: Jewish-Arab Encounters in a Middle Eastern Restaurant in Toronto." Canadian Jewish Studies / Études juives canadiennes, 26: 75-98.
https://doi.org/10.25071/1916-0925.40066
Rozin, O. (2010). "Israel and the Right to Travel Abroad, 1948-1961." Israel Studies, 15 (1): 147-176.
https://doi.org/10.2979/isr.2010.15.1.147
Salzborn, S. (2018). Globaler Antisemitismus. Eine Spurensuche in den Abgründen der Moderne. Mit einem Vorwort von Josef Schuster. Beltz Juventa: Weinheim.
Schönbach, P. (1961). Reaktionen auf die antisemitische Welle im Winter 1959/1960. Frankfurt am Main: Europäische Verlagsanstalt.
Scholch, A. (1985). "The Demographic Development of Palestine, 1850-1882." International Journal of Middle East Studies, 17 (4): 485- 505.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800029445
Shokeid, M. (1988). Children of Circumstance: Israeli Immigrants in New York. Ithaka and London: Cornell University Press.
Silber, M. (2008). "Immigrants from Poland want to go back ": The politics of return migration and nation building in 1950s Israel." Journal of Israeli History, 27 (2): 201-219.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13531040802284098
Sobel, Z. (1986). Emigrants from the Promised Land. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
Stauber, S. (2017). Israelim BeBerlin. Haifa: Neaman. https://www.neaman.org.il/EN/Files/Israelis%20in%20Berlin%20-%20A%20community%20in%20the%20making_20180605112718.663.pdf [Hebrew]
Tamir, A. (2018). "Reframing Jewish mobilities: de-nationalized/non- territorialized, racialized, and hybrid identities among Israeli immigrants in Canada." Mobilities, DOI: 10.1080/17450101.2018.1522877
https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2018.1522877
Toren, N. (1975). "The Effect of Economic Incentives on Return Migration." International Migration, 13 (3): 134-144.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.1975.tb00933.x
Toren, N. (1976). "Return to Zion: Characteristics and Motivations of Returning Emigrants." Social Forces, 54 (3): 546-558.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2576281
Toren, N. (1978). "Return Migration to Israel." International Migration Review, 12(1): 39-54.
https://doi.org/10.1177/019791837801200102
Webster, R. (1995). "Jüdische Rückkehrer in der BRD nach 1945: Ihre Motive, ihre Erfahrungen." Aschkenas, 5: 47-77.
https://doi.org/10.1515/asch.1995.5.1.47
Uriely, N. (1994). "Rhetorical Ethnicity of Permanent Sojourners: The case of Israeli Immigrants in the Chicago Area." International Sociology, 9 (4): 431-446.
https://doi.org/10.1177/026858094009004003
Yair, G. (2014). "Israeli existential anxiety: Cultural trauma and the constitution of national character." Social Identities, 20 (4-5): 346-362
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
CC Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0